All published articles of this journal are available on ScienceDirect.
Satisfaction with Life and its Relationship with Acculturation, Self-esteem, and Personality of Argentine Emigrants Living in Spain
Abstract
Introduction
This study examined the relationship between life satisfaction and levels of acculturation, self-esteem, and personality traits among Argentinians living in Spain. The objective was to determine how these psychological and sociocultural factors influence perceived life satisfaction within this migrant group.
Methods
A quantitative cross-sectional design was used. A total of 581 Argentinians residing in Spain (78.3% women and 21.7% men) participated in the study.
Results
Self-esteem was a positive predictor of life satisfaction and showed a strong positive association with it. Extraversion and conscientiousness were positively associated with life satisfaction, whereas neuroticism was negatively associated with life satisfaction and emerged as a negative predictor. Life satisfaction was also positively associated with integration and assimilation and negatively associated with separation.
Discussion
The findings suggest that both psychological factors and acculturation strategies play an important role in the life satisfaction of Argentinians living in Spain.
Conclusion
Life satisfaction in this migrant population is closely related to self-esteem, personality traits, and acculturation strategies, highlighting their relevance to psychological well-being and adaptation.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
In the last 50 years, Argentine migration to Spain has stood out; however, previously, between the late 19th century and the early 20th century, there was a significant increase in mass immigration from Europe to Argentina, mainly involving individuals of Italian and Spanish origin. Since the mid-20th century, the situation has reversed. Most Argentines have opted for Spain due to the possibility of obtaining Spanish or Italian citizenship through their parents or grandparents, who were originally from those countries and had immigrated to Argentina in previous decades. Furthermore, the importance of sharing the same language, as well as the economic growth and development opportunities in Spain, such as the quality of and access to health and education services, is emphasized [1].
Currently, the most recent data from UN DESA [2] report a total of 1.2 million Argentine emigrants. On the other hand, the National Institute of Statistics [3] registers a total of 415,987 Argentine immigrants in Spain, making it the country with the largest community of Argentines abroad, followed by the United States, which has the second-highest number of Argentine immigrants in the world. Spain is one of the European countries that has experienced the most significant increase in its immigrant population. The average age of these immigrants is 32 years, which corresponds to the active working-age population [4].
As Spain is the country with the largest community of Argentines worldwide, this study focuses on analyzing this specific population. The guiding question of this research is: What correlation exists between life satisfaction and levels of acculturation, self-esteem, and personality among Argentines living in Spain?
According to Berry and Sam [5], acculturation is the set of cultural modifications that arise as a result of the adaptation processes undertaken by an individual who was raised in one context and migrated to another for various reasons. This concept is not synonymous with psychological acculturation, as the latter focuses solely on the psychological changes caused by acculturation. Acculturation comprises four strategies: integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization. Integration occurs when individuals maintain their original customs while seeking to learn those of the new context in which they reside, thus achieving a balanced integration of both cultures. On the other hand, assimilation occurs when individuals do not wish to maintain their traditions and identity and instead seek to adopt those of the new culture. Conversely, if migrants wish to retain only their native cultural identity and reject the new culture, the strategy is separation. When this also occurs with the host cultural group in the new territory in which the migrants reside, and they are not accepted by that group, the strategy perceived by the immigrants is marginalization.
In recent years, global migration has tended to increase, and since culture significantly influences behavior, frictions between the traditions of the country of origin and those of the new country of residence are likely to arise due to substantial differences in rituals and customs. Migration results in a modification of learned behavior patterns and involves a shift toward new learning from the host culture, which modifies the individual at both psychological and social levels through the process of acculturation. The types of adaptation involved in this process can be psychological or cultural, the former being associated with the perception of personal well-being and the latter with the strategies, social skills, and communication skills needed to integrate into the new territory [6].
Regarding adaptation, it is stipulated that individuals migrating from one country to another exhibit symptoms of stress, but the intensity and nature of these symptoms vary according to individuals' unique responses to the acculturation process. The stress that occurs as a result of migration is referred to as “acculturative stress” [7]. Mental health and immigration are often linked through stressors associated with the migration process, such as difficulties in finding work, as well as psychological indicators such as anxiety. There are two assumptions related to acculturative stress. The first claims that an individual may have a predisposition to the development of a mental disorder prior to emigration, either due to genetics or an underlying disorder. In these cases, stressors caused by the migration process would function as risk factors and facilitators for the emergence of mental disorders. On the other hand, the second assumption points to uprooting and its possible consequences for mental health [8].
On the other hand, a concept that has a close connection with acculturation is identity, which is related to the personal feeling of belonging. Identity can be ethnic if it is associated with one's own ethnocultural community, or national if it develops around the country of origin or the host country. These types of identification are not mutually exclusive but can develop together, which is associated with greater adaptation and acculturative integration, providing benefits for the psychological well-being of individuals, especially in terms of life satisfaction [9].
When migrants preserve their cultural heritage while actively participating in the culture of the host country, they tend to enjoy better psychological health. This is reflected in lower levels of stress and greater life satisfaction. Essentially, it is emphasized that the level of biculturalism is closely related to well-being. Involvement in both cultures promotes social and cognitive flexibility, as well as broadens the repertoire of behaviors and competencies. This protects bicultural individuals against psychological adjustment issues, such as anxiety or loneliness, and facilitates sociocultural adaptation. Ultimately, integration strengthens social ties, personal characteristics, and emotions that help ease the difficulties of the acculturation process. Migrants who adopt this strategy tend to have fewer conflicts, both interculturally and intraculturally, which contributes to their generally enjoying better mental health, better psychological adjustment, greater productivity, and personal achievements [10].
Self-esteem is positively associated with psychological well-being and has several components that characterize it, including self-acceptance and self-respect. Human beings tend to want to protect and enhance their self-esteem, as a lack of it can cause some degree of psychological distress. Self-esteem is associated with self-protection, personal growth, and greater coping abilities in dealing with the different situations that may arise in life [11].
In immigrant populations, self-esteem serves as a protective factor for individuals' mental health, especially when they face mistreatment in the host country. Low self-esteem, accompanied by negative thoughts and feelings, is associated with depressive symptoms in immigrants. On the contrary, high levels of self-esteem in immigrants are related to resilient personalities that cope more effectively with the various stressors and obstacles that may arise during the adaptation process to the new country. Moreover, immigrants who score higher in self-esteem tend to rely on one another, allowing them to connect with people from the host country and thus perceive greater social support. This is because healthy self-esteem promotes self-confidence, an optimistic outlook related to hope, and a greater sense of personal control over thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. In turn, high self-esteem fosters a realistic view of strengths and weaknesses, seeing the latter as opportunities for improvement without engaging in harsh self-criticism [12].
Personality is a structure composed of multiple components that serves the function of dynamically organizing and coordinating human behavior. Personality, as an active system, is composed of basic tendencies (agreeableness, openness to experience, extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness), adaptive characteristics, and self-concept. It also has interfaces such as biological foundations, social and contextual influences, and objective biography, which refers to emotional reactions and manifest behavior [13].
Personality types are closely related to acculturation strategies in studies conducted on migrant populations. A meta-analysis of various studies on personality carried out by Schmitz and Schmitz [14] revealed that high levels of integration as a prominent acculturative strategy are associated with low levels of neuroticism as a personality trait and high levels of extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, and conscientiousness. These personality traits favor socialization and the ability to cope with adverse and stressful situations. In turn, integration as an acculturative strategy was positively related to social and psychological adaptation to migratory processes. On the other hand, marginalization as an acculturative strategy is associated with low levels of extraversion and conscientiousness, as well as high levels of neuroticism. Finally, this study found that the acculturative strategies with the weakest association with personality traits were assimilation and separation.
Migrating is a stressful event in a person's life due to various factors such as language differences (if any), cultural barriers, changes in support networks, and adaptation, among others. However, positive characteristics and well-being have also been observed among migrants, and it has been found that they can be healthy and resilient. One of the most commonly used variables in studies on migrant populations is subjective well-being, which consists of positive affect, life satisfaction linked to the cognitive dimension, and the absence of negative affect. It has been observed that differences in levels of subjective well-being, including life satisfaction, vary according to specific factors such as personality traits, self-esteem, and personal life experiences [15].
Life satisfaction is defined as a person's cognitive perception of their quality of life. In turn, life satisfaction is a judgment that arises from comparison with what is conceived as the most appropriate standard that each person sets for themselves [16].
Life satisfaction involves evaluating different areas, such as school, family, friends, and the migration experience. In the case of migration, this satisfaction refers to a global assessment that a person makes about their life as a migrant, based on personal criteria. This type of satisfaction is important for understanding how a person psychologically adapts to a new cultural environment, reflecting their well-being or level of satisfaction in that context, along with other aspects such as self-esteem and the presence or absence of psychological problems [17].
It has been observed that during the planning process of migration and after the individual has settled in the new country, subjective well-being increases due to the euphoria produced by the change of environment and then slowly decreases over time. It is estimated that the curve increases again after about three years because possible disappointments with the host country tend to diminish, leading to a more realistic perspective and increasing subjective well-being depending on personal and social factors [18].
1.2. Objectives
The general aim of the present research is to analyze the correlation between the level of life satisfaction among Argentinians living in Spain and their levels of acculturation, self-esteem, and personality. Specifically, it aims to determine the levels of acculturation, self-esteem, personality, and life satisfaction in Argentinians over 18 years of age residing in Spain and to explore how acculturation, self-esteem, and personality influence their life satisfaction.
Based on the theoretical framework and previous findings, it was hypothesized that self-esteem would be positively associated with life satisfaction and would act as a positive predictive variable. Moreover, higher levels of extraversion were expected to correspond to greater life satisfaction, whereas neuroticism would be negatively associated with it. Furthermore, it was proposed that higher levels of integration would be related to greater life satisfaction.
2. METHOD
2.1. Study Design
The present study is empirical and of a quantitative approach. It is a cross-sectional, descriptive research design, as the description of the determined population will be carried out at a single moment [19]. This research is also correlational, as it seeks to explain and predict the relationship between the different variables investigated in this study, meaning it considers how these variables relate to each other [20].
2.2. Setting
This study was conducted online among Argentinians residing in Spain. Data were collected through online surveys distributed via social media platforms, including Instagram, Facebook, LinkedIn, and WhatsApp groups, as well as via the online survey tool Google Forms. Recruitment and data collection occurred between August 2024 and December 2024. The use of online platforms allowed for broad dissemination and facilitated access to participants meeting the study criteria.
2.3. Participants
Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and based on informed consent. The data were used solely for statistical purposes. The data collection techniques came from primary sources, with data reconstituted from each subject's responses. The inclusion criteria included subjects born in Argentina, of any gender, age, and sex, who had emigrated to Spain on any date. The exclusion criteria included persons not born in Argentina, even if they resided as immigrants in Spain. Sex was self-reported by participants, and the sex distribution of the sample was described. The study did not aim to examine sex- or gender-based differences.
The sample for this research was non-probabilistic, as the population did not depend on probability, since it was previously delimited by specific characteristics according to the research guiding question [21]. Additionally, the non-probabilistic sample was of the snowball type; this type of sampling consists, on the one hand, of contacting acquaintances who meet the required characteristics and, in turn, having them spread the message within their network of contacts who also meet the specified requirements. Currently, the “snowball” procedure is carried out through the distribution of questionnaires via SurveyMonkey, Google Forms, or Encuestafácil, among others, through social media (Instagram, Facebook, LinkedIn, etc.), which increases the possibility of viral dissemination while also providing resources such as spreading through Facebook and WhatsApp groups with specific populations, influencers, and banners, among others [22].
2.4. Variables
Personality was measured using the Big Five dimensions: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience, and was considered a predictor of life satisfaction. Life satisfaction was operationalized as a component of subjective well-being, including positive and negative affect, and served as the primary outcome of the study [16]. Self-esteem was measured as self-acceptance and self-respect, associated with personal growth and coping abilities, and also functioned as a predictor of life satisfaction [11]. Acculturation was assessed via a survey including one item for each strategy proposed by Berry and Sam [5]: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization, and was also considered a predictor. Potential confounders and effect modifiers included age, gender, length of residence in Spain, and educational level, as these factors may influence both acculturation and life satisfaction.
2.5. Measurement
The assessment instrument batteries will contain the following techniques:
- Mini-IPIP: International Compendium of Abbreviated Personality Items [23]. The scale was validated in Argentina by Simkin et al. [24]. It consists of 20 items that measure the 5 evaluated personality dimensions: extraversion (e.g., “I am the life of the party”), agreeableness (e.g., “I empathize with what others feel”), conscientiousness (e.g., “I do my tasks right away”), neuroticism (e.g., “I have frequent mood swings”), and openness to experience (e.g., “I have a great imagination”). The responses to the scale are Likert-type from 1 to 5, where 1 means “Strongly disagree” and 5 means “Strongly agree.”
- SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale [16] validated in Argentina by Moyano et al. [25]. The scale includes 5 items (For example, “I am satisfied with my life”) that could be answered using a Likert scale from 1 to 5, where 1 means “Strongly disagree” and 5 means “Strongly agree.”
- RSES: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [26]. It was validated in Argentina by Góngora and Casullo [27]. The scale includes 10 items (For example, “I have a positive attitude toward myself”) that could be answered using a Likert scale from 1 to 4, where 1 means “Strongly disagree” and 4 means “Strongly agree.”
- To measure acculturation, a survey was developed that includes one item for each acculturation strategy developed by Berry and Sam [5]: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Following that order of dimensions, the items developed were 1) “I feel more Argentine than Spanish,” 2) “I feel more Spanish than Argentine,” 3) “I feel that I am as Spanish as I am Argentine,” and 4) “I feel that I do not fully belong to either Spain or Argentina.” An additional item was included regarding the level of satisfaction with the level of social integration in Spain.
- An ad-hoc sociodemographic questionnaire was included, which covered sex and age.
2.6. Bias
To minimize potential sources of bias, the study employed anonymous, voluntary participation with informed consent, reducing social desirability and reporting bias. Snowball sampling was monitored to avoid overrepresentation of specific networks. Additionally, standardized, validated instruments were used for personality, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and acculturation to reduce measurement bias.
2.7. Study Size
The final sample consisted of 581 participants. The study size was determined based on feasibility and previous research on similar populations, ensuring sufficient statistical power to detect moderate correlations between predictors (personality, self-esteem, acculturation) and the outcome (life satisfaction).
2.8. Quantitative Variables
Quantitative variables, such as scores for personality dimensions, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, were treated as continuous variables in the analyses. Where appropriate, variables were also categorized according to established cut-off scores from the respective validated scales to explore subgroup differences.
2.9. Statistical Methods
Correlations and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between predictors (personality, self-esteem, acculturation) and life satisfaction, controlling for potential confounders (age, gender, length of residence, education). Subgroup analyses were performed to explore differences across gender and age groups. Interaction terms were tested in regression models to assess moderating effects. Missing data were minimal (<5%) and were handled using pairwise deletion.
Since a non-probabilistic snowball sampling method was used, the results are not strictly generalizable to the entire population of Argentinians living in Spain. However, correlation and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted while considering the sample structure and evaluating potential overrepresentation of subgroups within the participant networks. This approach allowed for cautious interpretation of the results, acknowledging the limitations of the sampling strategy and avoiding unwarranted generalizations.
Sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of the findings. For example, analyses were repeated, excluding cases with extreme or outlier scores on the main variables (personality, self-esteem, acculturation, and life satisfaction). Additionally, results were compared using both continuous and categorized versions of the variables to ensure that conclusions were not dependent on the method of coding.
3. RESULTS
The results were analyzed using SPSS Statistics 28. The research included a total sample of 581 Argentinians residing in Spain, of which 78.3% corresponded to the female sex and 21.7% to the male sex (Table 1). All met the inclusion criteria; no losses or exclusions were reported. Additionally, the age of this population had an average of 38 years, with a minimum age of 15 and a maximum age of 78 (Table 2). Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and based on informed consent.
| Sex | Frequencies | Total % | Accumulated % |
|---|---|---|---|
| Female | 455 | 78.30% | 100% |
| Male | 126 | 21.70% | 21.70% |
| Total | 581 | 100 | - |
| - | N | Media | DE | Minimum | Maximum |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 581 | 38.1 | 10.6 | 15 | 78 |
| Total | 581 | - | - | - | - |
Following the general objective, Table 3 presents the first Pearson correlation conducted between the results obtained from the SWLS (Satisfaction with Life Scale) and acculturation (Table 3).
| - | Life Satisfaction |
|---|---|
| Separation | -.160*** |
| Assimilation | .143*** |
| Integration | .172*** |
| Marginalization | -.062ns |
ns = Not significant.
The obtained results show that there is a strong negative relationship between life satisfaction and separation (r=-.160; p=.001). Additionally, a strong positive correlation is observed between assimilation (r=.143; p=.001) and integration (r=.172; p=.001). Furthermore, there is no significant relationship between life satisfaction and marginalization (r=.062).
The second correlation was conducted between life satisfaction and self-esteem (Table 4).
| - | Life Satisfaction |
|---|---|
| Self-esteem | .613*** |
The third and final correlation was computed between life satisfaction and personality (Table 5), including the five dimensions that comprise the latter: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience.
| - | Sum SWLS |
|---|---|
| Extraversion | ,310*** |
| Agreeability | ,70 |
| Conscientiousness | ,228*** |
| Neuroticism | -,431*** |
| Openness to Experience | ,57 |
The results found allow us to observe that there is a strong positive relationship between life satisfaction and the personality dimension of extraversion (r=.310; p=.001). Similarly, there is a strong positive relationship between life satisfaction and responsibility (r=.228; p=.001). On the other hand, there is a strong negative relationship between life satisfaction and neuroticism (r=-.431; p=.001).
Following the first specific objective, a descriptive analysis of the variables of this research was carried out (Table 6).
| - | Minimum | Maximum | Media | Deviation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Life satisfaction | 5 | 25 | 16,77 | 4,431 |
| Self-esteem | 15 | 4 | 32,7 | 5,13 |
| Separation | 1 | 5 | 4,38 | 1,051 |
| Assimilation | 1 | 5 | 1,54 | 0,944 |
| Integration | 1 | 5 | 1,91 | 1,304 |
| Marginalization | 1 | 5 | 2,63 | 1,479 |
| Extraversion | 4 | 20 | 11,84 | 3,517 |
| Agreeability | 4 | 20 | 16,59 | 2,719 |
| Conscientiousness | 4 | 20 | 15,00 | 3,464 |
| Neuroticism | 4 | 20 | 12,73 | 3,344 |
| Openness to Experience | 5 | 20 | 13,57 | 2,310 |
Lastly, following the second specific objective to investigate the acculturation, self-esteem, and personality of Argentinians living in Spain and their influence on this population's life satisfaction, a multiple linear regression was conducted (Table 7).
| Model | R | R2 | R2 aj | D-W |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Life satisfaction | 0.657 | 0.431 | 0.421 | 2.07 |
Table 7 shows that the Durbin-Watson test indicated independence of errors (2.07). Regarding the regression analysis of life satisfaction, acculturation, self-esteem, and personality (Table 8), it was observed that the independent variables self-esteem and extraversion predict 43.1% of the dependent variable life satisfaction (r2 = .431). In particular, self-esteem has the greatest predictive weight (β = .470; p = .001), while extraversion has a more moderate additional effect (β = .127; p = .001). As for neuroticism, it was identified as a negative predictor (ß = -.184; p = .001).
| - | B | IC 95% | DE | Beta | t |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model | 2.656 | [-1.426; 6.739] | 2.079 | - | 1.278ns |
| Self-esteem | 0.406 | [.340; .472] | 0.034 | 0.47 | 12.113** |
| Extraversion | 0.159 | [.074; .245] | 0.044 | 0.127 | 3.662** |
| Agreeability | 0.037 | [-.070; .144] | 0.054 | 0.023 | .679ns |
| Conscientiousness | 0.052 | [-.033; .137] | 0.043 | 0.041 | 1.210ns |
| Neuroticism | -0.243 | [-.339; -.147] | 0.049 | -0.184 | -4.977** |
| Openness to Experience | 0.054 | [-.067; .176] | 0.062 | 0.029 | 0.876ns |
| Separation | -0.166 | [-.576; .244] | 0.209 | -0.039 | -.796ns |
| Marginalization | 0.127 | [-.064; .317] | 0.097 | 0.042 | 1.307ns |
| Integration | 0.2 | [-.081; .480] | 0.143 | 0.059 | 1.395ns |
| Assimilation | -0.04 | [-.484; .405] | 0.227 | -0.008 | -.176ns |
4. DISCUSSION
The results demonstrate that the first hypothesis of the five proposed in this research is valid: “Self-esteem would be positively associated with life satisfaction,” as a strong positive correlation was observed between both variables. Furthermore, it was observed in the multiple linear regression analysis that self-esteem is a positive predictive variable of life satisfaction, in accordance with the second proposed hypothesis: “Self-esteem would be a positive predictive variable of life satisfaction.”
On the other hand, it was found that there is a strong positive relationship between life satisfaction and the personality trait of extraversion, which indicates that people with greater life satisfaction exhibit higher levels of extraversion. This finding confirms the third hypothesis: “The greater the extraversion, the greater the life satisfaction” and corresponds with research conducted in Argentina. Additionally, a strong positive relationship was found between life satisfaction and conscientiousness as a personality trait. These results align with previous studies [28, 14].
Likewise, it was identified that the relationship between life satisfaction and neuroticism is negative and strong, meaning that when neuroticism increases, life satisfaction tends to decrease. This result is consistent with the fourth hypothesis proposed: “Neuroticism will be negatively associated with life satisfaction” and, in turn, with those obtained in previous studies [28-30].
In the present research, the results have shown support for the fifth hypothesis: “The greater the integration, the greater the satisfaction with life,” as a highly significant positive relationship was observed in accordance with previous studies [31-33]. Additionally, a strong positive correlation was found between life satisfaction and assimilation, coinciding with other research [34-36].
The limitations of this research relate to the small sample size and, therefore, it is not representative. Additionally, no minimum years of residence in Spain or minimum age were established. Moreover, four items were used to measure acculturation, designed based on the four dimensions of the variable, instead of using a validated scale in the country. Due to cultural and contextual differences, these findings should be interpreted with caution when generalizing to other immigrant groups.
Future studies could increase the scope of the research and, likewise, the size of the sample to ensure that it is representative of the studied population. Additionally, a minimum age for participation could be set, for example, starting from eighteen years old. On the other hand, future research could also establish a minimum number of years of residence in the host country, for example, having lived at least five years in Spain.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this research has achieved its general objective of analyzing the relationship between the level of life satisfaction among Argentines living in Spain and their levels of acculturation, self-esteem, and personality. It has also met the specific objectives of determining the levels of acculturation, self-esteem, personality, and life satisfaction of Argentines residing in Spain, and investigating the acculturation, self-esteem, and personality of this same population.
Likewise, the five proposed hypotheses have been validated, as it was found that self-esteem positively predicts life satisfaction and is strongly and positively associated with it. Additionally, a strong positive association was found between extraversion, a personality trait, and life satisfaction. Furthermore, a strong positive association was found between conscientiousness, as a personality trait, and life satisfaction. Following the line of personality, the fourth hypothesis related to the strong negative association between neuroticism and life satisfaction was validated, which, in turn, is a negative predictor. Finally, the fifth and last hypothesis was supported by the strong positive relationship between life satisfaction and integration as an acculturation strategy. The relationship with assimilation was also strongly positive, while the relationship with separation was strongly negative.
AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: O.: contributed to the study conception and design, data collection, analysis and interpretation of results, and drafting the manuscript; L. and H.: Contributed to the review, analysis, and corrections. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
| Mini IPIP | = International Compendium of Abbreviated Personality Items |
| RSES | = Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale |
| SWLS | = Satisfaction with Life Scale |
ETHICS APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
Ethical approval was not required under the institutional regulations applicable to anonymous, voluntary, survey-based research conducted at Universidad de Flores.
HUMAN AND ANIMAL RIGHTS
All human research procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the committee responsible for human experimentation (institutional and national), and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2013.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants before participation. The informed consent form was provided via Google Forms, and acceptance was required to complete the questionnaires.
AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS
The data and supporting information are available in the article.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
